Archive - SUMMER 1999

Sunderland nearly flies into oblivion By Lindsay Wright

Captain Don Ross of Whitianga spent his working life at sea in and around the Hauraki Gulf and the northeastern coastline. Here he tells Lindsay Wright, who is currently doing deliveries, charter work and teaching Competent Launchmaster courses at the Marlborough Maritime School, of a near miss between the 20m coaster Lady Jocelyn, and an RNZAF Sunderland flying boat on Auckland's Waitemata Harbour.

It happened on a moonless mid-winter night in 1954. The crew and I had finished loading cargo and getting the ship ready for sea, and then gone up to the queen's Ferry Hotel for a few beers before sailing time. We were scheduled to sail at 2000hrs, with about 60 tonnes of general cargo for Whitianga and a hundred 44 gallon (200 litre) drums of petrol on deck, lashed around the bulwarks.
They kicked us out of the pub just after closing time at 1800 hrs, and we went back on board and snatched a bit of sleep before sailing time.

At 2000hrs the engineer fired up Lady Jocelyn's 88hp Kelvin diesel and the crew cast off. The heavily laden little coaster headed down Auckland Harbour into a black night, where only shore lights and channel marks enabled her crew to distinguish between the harbour and the Auckland foreshore. Half an hour later the little ship was abeam of Mission Bay when I heard a god awful roaring noise.

Out of the darkness came a Sunderland flying boat, engines straining at full throttle to lift it off the water and over the freighter in its path.

My eyes were riveted on his navigation lights. I just couldn't believe it was happening.

The (Royal New Zealand) Air Force used to fly out of Mission Bay in Sunderlands, but they always laid a flare path across the harbour first, and often had patrol boats warning other vessels off. But I hadn't seen any flares at all.

My first thought was 'Oh no, it's on my starboard side and I should be giving way.' But before I'd had a chance to alter course, the aeroplane was upon us. The crew and I just stood in the wheelhouse with our hearts in our mouths while this thing roared over our heads. We all expected to die. The flying boat passed so close that we could see drops of water falling from its undercarriage and we were sure that it would take out the radio aerial strung between the ship's two masts.

We had 20,000 litres of petrol on deck, plus some pretty flammable cargo below. we'd have gone up with a hell of a bang.

After several nerve wracking seconds, the aeroplane's navigation lights disappeared skyward into the night, and the ship continued on course for Cape Colville.

'I expected a right old reception committee of cops waiting in the wharf as soon as we got back to Auckland the next day,' said Captain Ross. 'I could just imagine the court of inquiry - people testifying that the master of the ship which failed to give way had been drinking. By the time they'd finished with me I'd never command another ship on the New Zealand coast. I was done for.'

We discharged our cargo in Whitianga and all the way back to Auckland I was working out excuses in my head. But I didn't really have a leg to stand on. When we pulled into Auckland there wasn't a soul  to be seen. No cops or Marine Department boys, but I still spent several days expecting the long arm of the law to tap me on the shoulder and take me away.

That never happened, and Captain Ross continued commanding ships around the New Zealand coast and skippering his own big game fishing boats from Whitianga.

Then one day, a few years ago, he was taking on a fishing charter, and was asked if he had any good yarns from his time at sea, off the coast here.

So I told them about the time I almost collided with the flying boat. One of the blokes burst out laughing and I asked him what the matter was.

'I was on that aeroplane', he replied. 'We thought we could get away with taking off without a flare path that night, when suddenly this ship appeared out of night, right in front of us. We were all dead scared we'd be grounded for life if anybody found out, so we didn't breathe a word to anyone.  We were bloody sure we were going to die.'

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Charter Chatter   by Mike Pigneguy

A new rule's been slipped into the Collision Regulations. It's called the "I'm in Front" Rule. I came across this the other day with a classic crossing situation where we were the stand on vessel. When it became obvious that the skipper of the other boat was not at all concerned about the impression our 120 tonnes was about to make on his starboard side, I had to take all way off and gave the appropriate sound signals. (He later complained about all the "unnecessary noise!")

But still there was no response as he gaily motored under our bow in a boat that would cost more than the average home.

He later anchored close to us, an opportunity too good to miss to make a social call on the skipper. He didn't invite me on board after I had asked him if he knew anything about the rules of the road.

Of course he was absolutely convinced that he was in the right, because "the horizon was moving and I was in front!" Nothing I said would change his mind, and as he started to question my heritage I left him, but not before wishing his passengers good luck.

Dive flags have also taken on a new design, the latest being blue shorts with a whiter interior hung up on a stick on a windless day. It would be funny, except that boats were running around blissfully unaware that they were possibly just metres away from a very nasty accident. Again, the owner of this "dive flag" was totally arrogant and abusive when advised of the correct signal.

Recently, a fisherman anchored in the Rangitoto Channel chose to jump overboard and swim from his runabout when it looked as though a ship was about to run him down. When picked up, he was asked why he didn't move his boat. He replied that two previous ships had gone around him and he thought that this one would do the same!

To borrow an old adage, applicable to all the above: There are none so blind as those who will not see.

Viaduct Basin
The storm on the Waitemata Harbour during the weekend of November 27 and 28 certainly provided some of us with interesting charters on the night of November 27. It was not a particularly pleasant evening when all of us set out, with a 30-35 knot easterly with showers, but it was nothing we hadn't been out in before.
The best place in those conditions is up the top of the harbour, and there were at least a dozen of us there busy keeping out of each other's way. One by one, as our chartered time was ending, we had to round Kauri Point and head into the easterly back to downtown Auckland. The only problem was the wind strength, which had increased dramatically to an unforecasted 50-60 knots, and there were now 2m seas under the Harbour Bridge!

Unfortunately, our charter didn't finish until 0030hrs, and I was warned by the skippers of two boats that had managed to get their boats back into the Viaduct Basin before midnight, that to attempt an entry now would be very hazardous indeed. They were right, as there was now 60 knots blowing across the 40m wide entrance and pushing a good rolling sea through it. After a good look at the situation I decided that it was just too dangerous to attempt to enter the 30m, 120 tonne Te Aroha into the new "world class superyacht haven". After offloading our passengers on Prince's Wharf, with the sea conditions breaking our mooring lines, we spent the remainder of the night in the shelter of Marsden Wharf.

Meanwhile, conditions back at the Viaduct Basin were not good. Any vessels which might have been moored Mediterranean-style on the outside, as is proposed, would have been in serious trouble. Similarly, on the northern side of the new island, just inside the entrance, the marina pontoons, which are designed to take up to 40m superyachts berthed Mediterranean-style to the island, were leaping up and down around 1.5m. Again, any superyachts berthed there would have been in trouble as well.

Fishing boats berthed just inside the entrance were breaking lines and moved inside to the eastern Viaduct to escape further damage. The 28m steel Chatham Flyer moved off the northern wall of the eastern Viaduct to escape a pounding, and chose to anchor just off the wall instead.

The 32m Pacific Mermaid was berthed close by the Team New Zealand base with two other similar-sized yachts. Extra mooring lines had to be deployed and Ken Winter, the owner of the "PM", had to use his engines throughout the night to try and decrease the vessel's heavy rolling. And this is right inside the new area!

As the chairman of our local branch, I have written to the America's Cup Village Limited advising them of the above, and of our concerns for the safety of our vessels and others that berth inside (and outside) the Viaduct Basin. I also reminded them that during the so-called "consultation process" we warned them about the inadequacies of the new Viaduct Basin design, and of the consequences of a good northerly or northeasterly blow. We were totally ignored, but have now been proved right.

The ACVL has now had to acknowledge that there are some problems, and have come up with the idea of mooring some barges to the north of the basin, out in the main harbour. It seems that this is mainly to protect the superyachts berthed on the outside. But they are still denying, despite the evidence of the night of the storm, that there is a problem with sea conditions on the inside.

The Chairman of the ACVL, A L Fergusson, and Harry Julian, who is now a director of Infrastructure Auckland (which "owns" ACVL), have both attacked me in the press. They have chosen to "shoot the messenger", which is a tried and tested way of obscuring the truth. Harry Julian even went on to say about the storm night that "inside the basin there was calm water and, in fact, only wind-driven ripples. The craft inside were sitting in comfort", plus a lot of other "mis-information".

Those of us who were there that night know differently, and we are getting tired of the misleading and inaccurate statements emanating from the offices of the ACVL and Infrastructure Auckland.

The Chief Executive Officer of ACVL, Rob Sutherland, recently told the New Zealand Herald that charter boat operators berthed inside the Viaduct Basin, and paying top rates since 1995, were "squatters and had no rights!" That's what we get after three years of cooperation in the hope of obtaining some reasonable berthage for charter boats!

At the time of writing, the six operators who have been berthed in the eastern Viaduct since 1995 are still in court with the ACVL, trying to maintain their rights to berth there and at a sustainable berthage rate.

America's Cup facilities
At the time of writing, the only place where charter boats will be able to pick up passengers from downtown Auckland during the regatta period, at which time we are told that close on 300,000 people will be visiting our fair city, will be two small pontoons between Queen and Prince's Wharves. These pontoons are woefully inadequate now, and will be a complete disaster if only a small fraction of these visitors want to get afloat.
For the past three years we have been in the ear of the Auckland City Council, the Auckland Regional Council, the Auckland Regional Services Trust (now Infrastructure Auckland), Tourism Auckland and Ports of Auckland, and although we had agreement from all but one of them that there was indeed a dearth of facilities, nothing happened. Oh yes, there has been a new Viaduct Basin built of course, but it's not for locals.
Now, with only eight months to go, the realisation that the city could be severely embarrassed because of the lack of a waterfront facility where people can easily get afloat (apart from on a ferry) has started to sink in. The Auckland City Council has again asked for information as to what is required, and maybe, with Chris Fletcher as our new mayor, we might end up with more than two small pontoons.

Berthage
If you are thinking of bringing your boat, charter or otherwise, to Auckland during the America's Cup period, the best advice is don't - unless you have a guaranteed berth and somewhere to pick your passengers up. I know it sounds like protectionism, but it's the truth. Unless you want to anchor out somewhere, of course!

Ports of Auckland has now confirmed that the Hobson West Marina is going ahead, with a completion date of July this year. There are still berths available here, but at a price of around $560,000 for a 25-30m berth, I don't see too many charter boats rushing in! A five year lease starts at $1000 per metre per annum, plus GST, plus operating expenses. Rates then increase at 10 percent each year for the first two years, followed by a 5 percent increase, then "market rates".

Berth holders are not allowed to sub-let their berths, or let anyone else use them, so this marina will do nothing to alleviate the shortage of pick up and drop off facilities on our waterfront.

I am pleased to say, however, that Ports of Auckland has found a berth for our Te Aroha during the marina's construction period.

Meanwhile, some overseas superyachts, whose owners are the only ones who can afford to berth their boats on our waterfront, are starting to fill the berths in the basin.

Revoked ticket
A local skipper of his own ferry/charter boat has had his ticket revoked after several incidents involving ships, other ferries and charter boats. These incidents occurred over a lengthy period, culminating in some serious near misses.

After receiving a number of complaints, the Director of the Maritime Safety Authority acted upon them and, after an investigation, revoked the skipper's certificate. Without his certificate, this skipper is now personally unable to operate his boat upon which, he says, his livelihood depends. It was on these grounds that he appealed to the courts. As we went to press the court ruled on a point of law in favour of the appellant allowing him to now operate although we understand certain conditions have been applied.  The concern to industry is now the Director of Maritime Safety is apparently unable to enforce the collision regulations.  More on this once we have seen the written judgment.                                                                                                                     
Tiritiri Cafe
Just the other day, a super-fast RHIB zapped into the wharf at this well-known conservation island. Those aboard spoke with accents from the United States of America, and asked Ray, the Department of Conservation ranger, where "the bar and cafe" was on the island! As they were not interested in a cup of tea at the plant nursery, Ray directed them across to nearby Gulf Harbour.

The New Year
The New Year and the Millennium don't personally mean much to me, apart from having to buy a new calendar. But it obviously does to a lot of people, especially those who can afford to celebrate in style. I'm told that to be afloat on Sydney Harbour on that party night could cost you anything between $750 and $2000 per person!
Most operators in Auckland have yet to set their prices, but indications are that Kiwis will be cheaper than kangaroos! Our main competition here will be restaurants, but it shouldn't be too difficult to beat the Skytower's alleged $1100 per head.

Undercutting
At a time when members of our industry should be sticking together, especially over prices, it is a pity to have one of our operators undercut well established party season prices. Those of us who have been in the industry for longer than five minutes have worked hard over the years to get prices up to a level that, while still a fair price for the clients, return a reasonable remuneration for the operator.

Market forces (ie, other operators and shore restaurants) were not dictating that the industry should lower its prices, so the operator in question must either be in trouble and going for profitless volume, or just trying to be plain greedy.

Both are short term remedies for long term problems, but worse, it certainly has a damaging effect upon other operators who have correct pricing structures, but may be forced to drop them in order to compete with the rogue operator. With lower prices usually come lower service, which ultimately damages the whole industry.
Last November alone, I'm told some 17 vessels in the Auckland area came into survey, probably all looking for gold in the America's Cup. If history is anything to go by, these new operators will come in, undercut, take the cream (those who survive) and disappear after the event.

With all these local new boys coming into the system, plus those from overseas, we certainly don't want to be cutting each other's throats.

Marpol
The MSA recently gave us a timely reminder of our obligations with regard to the new marine protection rules that came into effect on August 20, 1998. 

Annexes 1 and V of MARPOL, concerning the prevention of pollution by oil and garbage, are of direct concern to us. Procedures relating to both these items should be covered in your vessel's Safety Management Manual. It's a good idea to have the plastic sticker supplied by the MSA stuck up in your galley as a permanent reminder. Not that you should need reminding about the subject of pollution.

Because of the complete lack of rubbish facilities on the waterfront, we have to take all our garbage home. Tins, bottles and plastics are then sorted for recycling, food scraps go into the compost, and there is a little bit left over for the dustman. It gets a bit hectic after a few nights and days of party trips, but that is our personal philosophy on garbage and recycling. We only have one environment and finite resources, and the more people come to realise that and become willing to protect them, the better it will be, not only for ourselves, but also for future generations.

I was present at the recent handover of the America's Cup Village. Part of the "celebration" was the release of 5000 balloons, each containing a gift for the lucky children who apparently were going to find them. With the southwesterly wind that was blowing at the time, the released balloons blew into the Viaduct Basin, the harbour, Rangitoto Channel and into the Hauraki Gulf!

How many boats had their cooling water intakes blocked by deflated balloons, I wonder? Many of the guests there shook their heads in disbelief at this environmentally unfriendly act. At least it was some comfort that they did.

Battle of the bilge
Did you know that bacteria growing in bilge water can eat through the steel hull of a ship in a matter of months? Scary stuff indeed!

In a recent New Scientist article, Jon Copley says that aerobic bacteria use up all the oxygen in bilge water, paving the way for anaerobic sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB's). These bugs convert the sulphates in seawater into corrosive sulphides that attack metal. Left to themselves, the microbes form a sludge that can eat through 10mm of steel plate in a year.

There is a simple test of adding ferrous salts to a bilge water sample to check if sulphide-producing SRBs are present. If found, the bugs can be killed with disinfectants such as bleach. But a more environmentally friendly method is to use a chemical to block the flow of electrons in the anaerobic respiration of SRBs. This effectively unplugs the power source that drives the bacteria, and they die off.

I wouldn't be surprised if these SRBs have something to do with the corrosion of metal fastenings in wooden hulled vessels as well. It would seem that the best solution is to keep your bilges nice and dry!

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Too rough to rescue.   by Keith Ingram

The dawn was grey and cold as the light lifted above the land to the east. The chilling dampness had crept into every part of the little ship and what with the frequent annoying myriad of new weaps or leaks, apart from the engine room, nowhere seemed to be dry.  This trip had not been a good one and after four long days at sea working in constant cold snotty conditions, fatigue was catching up on all on board. The harbour entrance lay ahead and inside, a hot shower, warm bed and sleep was only two hours away. The sea was still running although the wind had dropped to a manageable 20 - 25 knots, it was enough to keep the white caps alive.  An ebb tide was just starting to run after a predawn high and while it would be uncomfortable we had crossed in worse seas before.

To delay further, as we were now catching glimpses of the leads would mean a four hour wait until low, with no guarantees of an improvement in conditions as the winds were forecasted to build again by mid morning. This, and the prospect of less water at the entrance, could mean another night at sea. The ebb tide was stronger than anticipated with the set  forcing the old girl down below the leads and closer inshore.  The wheel house windows were covered in salt spray, the eyes ached and the deckhands words were lost in the surrounding noise. Yes, before we knew it, its too late, we were in foo - foo valve country as things quickly turned to pooh. The adrenalin started to rush as the skipper called on every bit of skill as we lost our margin for error. This would be touch and go survival stuff.  Ever had that feeling of fear. Its some thing which keeps most seamen alive, until the day when the limits are pushed too far and disaster strikes!

Looking back through New Zealand's shipping history, our most serious accidents have happened in our coastal waters, in many cases while implementing a bar crossing. The worst disaster recorded was in 1863, when 189 people on board the Orpheus lost their lives while the ship attempted to cross the Manukau Harbour bar.
Although modern vessels of every size now have the latest navigational equipment and much more horsepower, conditions today are the same as they were then. Every time a master commits to crossing a bar, he is taking a calculated risk that his experience and knowledge of the vessel will see them safely through in the conditions prevailing at the time.

This article in response to an MSA request, has been written by drawing on the knowledge and experiences of some of our most experienced and respected skippers working many of our notorious bars. If it only helps one person to err on the side of caution and return safely, then it's been worth while.

Due to their numerous locations all around the New Zealand coastline, bar entrances continue to be a focal point of everyday life for many mariners.

Whether these entry points to the sea originate from rivers, estuaries or harbours, they all have the same inherent characteristic - Danger! Crossing a bar requires caution and respect, or one will pay the consequences.  External pressures of work, dollars or recreational peer pressure can cloud ones ability to make a sound judgment.

All ports with bar entrances have their own features. Tidal state and flow, catchment area, prevailing long shore currents and swell are all important variables to consider. If you're not familiar with a particular bar or entrance, consult a regular user, even if the conditions are good and the situation seems straightforward. One inherent characteristic all bars have in common is their ability to change, sometimes overnight, even from tide to tide. These changes must be constantly monitored, and their effect is important to consider when planning a crossing. (It is well worth noting that although your chart may be the correct one for the area, and all corrections are up to date, the leads and depths may be different to that shown.)

Basic knowledge which should be garnered from regular local users, is the channel configuration, depths and tidal influence. Someone on shore is generally able to view the face of the waves. If they are on high ground they can also observe waves over a much wider area.

If in doubt as to whom to contact, use the coastal marine VHF service. If requested they will contact the Harbourmaster or some other responsible person for you, who will then make contact with your vessel from the shore. The Nautical Almanac contains telephone and radio contact details of all New Zealand ports, and also the name of the coastal station to call. Never resist the offer to be talked in, believing it will show a lacking in your own experience. Occasional users often miss the all-important shape and depth of the navigational channel.

Of course, an outgoing tide always has a negative influence on any bar. this not only slows down any incoming vessel, it also deepens their draft as they apply additional speed to maintain steerage. Unless the boat is planing, this vessel posture, known as "squat" will increase draft considerably. Unfortunately, squat jeopardises your drive train with exaggerated slanted angle of vessel tilt.

Try to plan your departure and arrival around high tide. Not only does this give you the most water over any possible obstruction, it also removes much of the power a breaking wave may contain. Incoming tide is also preferable, as this eliminates nasty "pressure waves" at the entrance, unless a river is in flood. An additional hazard which comes with any river entrance is floating or, worse still, neutrally buoyant debris, such as logs. These can pose serious problems for all vessels, even days after a flood or large coastal swell.

A vessel's design has a bearing on her ability to cross a bar safely. The double ender is favoured as a sea-kindly vessel in a following sea or for entering a bar, as they will generally run straight and have a true displacement hull. Square-turned are often not true displacement vessels and can be unpredictable. Planing vessels can often be considered in a similar manner. All boats are made to go forward and are accordingly much safer in this mode. It is much more difficult for a wave to damage a bow than an open cockpit or a saloon.  Another important aspect is the distinct possibility of catching a swell which suddenly turns into a breaking wave. Some boats handle this quite well, others, due to their hull design, will easily broach and put their occupants into grave danger.

Every captain must ask themselves whenever they approach a dodgy bar situation,
* how fast is my craft
* how quickly will she respond to that demand for speed
* what are her sea keeping abilities in a following sea
* if dumped upon, how will she react?
* what level of experience and skill do I have for this situation
* how cool is my nerve under pressure

If any of these answers are negative, you should consider if you want to place yourself, your boat and any passengers in a potentially lethal situation.

There is no "black and white" way to cross a bar, as every vessel, every skipper and every sea situation is different. However, there are some golden rules to remember:
* the size and type of vessel
* its trim, loading and stability
* its draught
* recent knowledge of the bar
* experience of the master and crew
* fuel and mechanical reliability
* the stress and impact of the prevailing weather
* the state of the tide, and the available depth of water.

The elements that are present at a bar include:
* swell height and direction
* bar depth
* river velocity
* wind speed and direction
* set strength and direction
* visibility

The size and shape of a wave is critical. Breakers can appear in shoal areas, and strong currents in deep water. Current against swell produces larger than expected waves, often curling at the top before breaking. The size and shape of a wave is critical. High and low frequency waves can combine to produce two or three much larger waves, a phenomenon which causes the unpredictable killer wave.

It i s important to know the spacing between waves, but remember the distance to travel to safety and compare that to the speed of the vessel through the passage. It is worth noting that the average speed over ground of a swell is about 20 knots.

At Greymouth it takes about eight minutes for a vessel travelling at displacement speed to travel from half a mile out to between the breakwaters. If large breakers are breaking every eight minutes or less, the chances of one catching up with you are enormous. In which case it is often safer to take one on during the early part of the approach rather than at the most critical time of entry.

If a large wave does strike, the vessel's stability will have a huge bearing on its ability to survive. Poor stowage of fish or cargo, the free surface effect of slack tanks, deck water and water in holds, stowage of heavy gear above the deck, overloading and modifications that effect the vessel's stability criteria should be avoided at all costs.

The closer the speed of a vessel is to that of a wave, the more dangerous it is. As the wave passes underneath, the bow and stern have relatively less water around them, so the vessel is not under total control. Some vessels may run off and broach,  and the skipper may find the vessel is placed beam on to the sea, with the potential for a roll-over.

The speed of approach for a displacement vessel should be a little slower than cruising or hull speed, as a following sea will push the boat faster. Many experienced skippers operate at full throttle on the back of a wave until they are in the trough, then reduce throttle to about half as the face of the wave approaches and passes underneath. When the bow rises again as the vessel moves to the back of the wave, full throttle is once again applied.

The direction of waves and the angle that the wave approaches the stern of the vessel is critical. This comment must be taken with regard to the survival of a vessel   in a sea, and is not meant to override the practices of good navigation.

Where sea room permits and the options are available it is recommended that the waves or swells should meet the stern of the vessel at right angles, or square to the stern. In some cases a zig zag course takes place as one maintains the desired course, then as the swell nears the stern, will change course to receive the wave square off. As soon as the wave passes by the helmsman will steer off again to maintain the course made good.

Many harbours such as Westport and Greymouth have a strong set across the entrance. Due to the leeway created this can affect the compass course being steered and the relative angle that the swells will be approaching the vessel.

One method to check for set from a safe distance is to steer a course similar to the course to be steered on the bar, observe a transit ahead (any two land-based objects in line), then take a compass bearing steered and maintain the observed transit for say,five minutes, then again check the compass bearing. Any appreciable change in compass bearing is evidence of set.

At the Port of Greymouth, a quick flashing blue light is turned on if the conditions are or may be considered dangerous for any vessel to cross the bar. Shore contact should be made to seek advice before entering.

The Whakatane River is quite different to most others around New Zealand. It is not an all weather, all tide port. It's already a popular port, and is attracting an increasing amount of traffic. Aside from the usual problems with the bar which have been outlined, Whakatane has its own character. The most glaring of these is the numerous exposed rocks at the entrance. Most bar entrances have huge expanses of beach and sand, but this is not so in Whakatane. While the rocks pose obvious problems and potential danger, they also create some redeeming qualities. Because of their position, the channel is well defined and unlikely to change. Another plus is the relatively short distance separating open ocean from harbour confines. The "period of jeopardy" is very short, usually far less than 100m, compared with other bar entrances which can stretch out   hundreds of metres.

One submerged rock, called Mussel Rock, which lies just outside the entrance and only slightly east of a direct path, does collect the odd propeller or stern leg of an unsuspecting or unwary boatie.

The Manukau harbour has a busy commercial entrance which can and has caused seafarers a lot of grief. There are two entrances, the one to the north is constantly on the move and should only be used by local skippers who are confident on its current position. The main channel to the south is reasonably stable, although
depths do vary depending on prevailing conditions. The "period of jeopardy" can be quite long in rough conditions and the wave set short and troublesome when the wind is in the west. This is one entrance where smaller vessels transiting in rough conditions will invariably have to contend with at least one rogue wave during the crossing. Another concern is the effect of salt spray or spume reducing visibility in westerly conditions, a problem not restricted to this harbour.

If you have any doubts about the sea conditions, your vessel or any other factor, don't attempt a bar crossing. Stay at sea or in port and let someone know what decision you have made.

While the rewards may be great once out at sea, extreme diligence must be exercised when coming or going. Recognising all the inherent social problems is a must for any responsible boat operator.

Personal feelings
This is another question to consider. "How am I feeling right now?" This seemingly innocuous question sounds silly but the ramifications can be far reaching. Mental, physical or emotional stress can have a huge bearing on your concentration and performance, and can easily change from day to day, just like the bar you're negotiating. Don't trivialise your personal state of mind.

A tricky bar must often be worked quite aggressively before you enter it. It can be difficult to make sure your vessel is well positioned when the time is right. Long shore currents, wind and tide may create problems and force you to continually relocate your craft. The goal is to enter any bar from the closest safe position which does not put you in jeopardy. Often this requires great agility on the wheel and a corresponding degree of concentration on what's happening on and around the vessel.  Most boat handlers are usually "with it", and feel well among themselves, but not always. We all have personal difficulties at some stage - identifying and allowing for them is important when the demands may be great.

Remember if it's marginal  to cross, it's going to be marginal to effect a rescue without putting further lives at risk.

Editor's note: This feature was prepared with help from Rick Pollock, Brian Piner, Cedric Trounson, Matt Londrigan and Graham Turner. Photos courtesy of David Coakley of Greymouth.

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Halon alternative passes muster

When the manufacture of Halon stopped because of its adverse impact on the ozone layer, the maritime industry lost a very effective, compact fire fighting tool.

Many boats are still fitted with obsolete Halon-drenching systems, but the cost of changing to CO2 is in many cases prohibitive, not only because of its expense but also because of the extra space required for storing the gas cylinders.

Fire engineers have now come up with a suitable replacement which can be used in existing Halon installations.

David Boff, National Manager for special hazards of Chubb Fire & Safety has recently assisted in the introduction of the MSA approved Kidde Marine FM-200 fire suppression system for the New Zealand market.

Kate Houghton of Kidde Graviner (Australia) takes up the story.

When the world recognised the damaging effects that Halon agents were having on the environment in the early 1980s, the Montreal Protocol was developed to regulate the phasing out of all ozone depleting substances (regardless of their uses) in a controlled and orderly manner.

This phasing out schedule was varied throughout the world, and it is interesting to note that Australia has largely led the world in implementing these phaseout schedules, and was in fact the first country to prohibit the use of Halon agents in fire and explosion suppression applications.

The use of Halon agents (primarily 1301 and 1211) in Australia was banned in fixed and portable fire and explosion suppression applications from December  31, 1995. While this could be implemented relatively easily in most land-based applications, marine fire suppression systems were not so easily replaced.
A new maritime testing and approval standard for the myriad of Halon replacement agents that sprang up following the demise of Halon had not yet been developed. Thus the maritime industry was granted essential use status worldwide until a fully tested and approved alternative was available.

IMO Circular 848
The Maritime Safety Committee of the International Maritime Organisation is responsible for developing a marine fire suppression standard, both for testing and approval. In June 1998 the committee issued its MSC Circular 848: Revised guidelines for the approval of equivalent fixed gas fire extinguishing systems, as referred to in SOLAS 74 for machinery spaces and cargo pump rooms."

Circular 848 detailed the testing requirements necessary to assess any new gaseous fire extinguishing agent. Their primary objective was to simulate on-board conditions in the event of an engine room fire. The engine room mockup was highly obstructed, simulating actual conditions, with ventilation doors and an access door.
The area of the test room was required to be 100sq m, with no horizontal dimension being less than 8m and a height of not less than 5m.  The engine mockup was required to be 1m x 3m x 3m,  to be constructed of steel. 
The tests evaluated extinguishing agent distribution and extinguishing capabilities of a range of agents, with different design and performance characteristics.

They also took into account the difference between most land-based fires and those experienced at sea.
Fires at sea are generally rapid-forming, intense and potentially devastating to both life and property. The testing required for any agent to gain approval for use in maritime applications reflected this, with intense fire loads, longer pre-burn times and strict pass/fail criteria on fire extinguishment and re-ignition. 

Results
To carry out these tests, the USCG purpose-built an enclosure in their vessel State of Maine. The agents and their manufacturers were:
Kidde-Fenwal Inc, using Great Lakes Chemical Corporations agent FM-200
3M, using their agent CEA-410 and hardware by Thorn Securities Inc
Ansul Inc, using North American Fire Guardian's agent NAFS III, and
Powsus Inc, using Envirogel

Baseline Halon 1301 tests were also undertaken for comparison with each of these new agents. Envirogel, a gas/dry powder mixture, was unable to extinguish the test fires and further testing was discontinued.
A number of issues were highlighted in the results, including design concentrations, discharge and extinguishing times, toxic product generation and overpressure of the enclosure. These issues were important in selecting and approving an agent for large scale, worldwide installation in the maritime industry. 

The agents were also required to protect the potential inhabitants of the engine room, should anyone be trapped in the enclosure when the fire suppression system is discharged.

The Kidde Fenwal system using FM-200 successfully passed these tests , and consequently it is able to be used unrestricted in these applications.  The 3M agent, CEA-410, also falls into this category. However, it is classified as an agent of last resort under the US EPA SNAP rule. Thus, it may only be used where technical or commercial reasons warrant.

On the other hand, the Ansul system using NAFS III could not comply with the IMO Circular 848 clause, which states that the agent's design concentration must be less than the agent's LOAEL. Therefore this agent is prohibited from use in applications that are governed by IMO regulations.

The discharge and extinguishment times of these systems were also important in providing the most reliable and effective suppression system. All agents tested by the USCG had a nominal discharge time of 10 seconds or less.

While the discharge times were consistent, their fire extinguishment times - a function of both the suppression agent used (in the correct concentration and quantity), and system performance characteristics (such as nozzle design) - were not.

The Kidde Fenwal FM-200 system had consistently fast fire extinguishment times ranging from two to 15 seconds, the 3M CEA-410 system of between two and 12 seconds, and the NAFS III system of one to 15 seconds. The Ansul NAFS III system did not extinguish all fires in the telltale fire test.
This is believed to be a function of the discharge nozzles that were being screened for use in further system testing. The failure of this system to extinguish these fires in more than 50 percent of tests serves to illustrate the importance of an integrated system, and the performance of the discharge nozzle in overall system performance. 

Toxic byproducts
In this time of heightened awareness regarding occupational health and safety, the generation of toxic byproducts has taken on greater prominence when assessing replacement Halon agents.

Before the results were assessed for their impact on personnel, the effect of the fire itself, such as nitrous oxides, had to be considered. The intense heat and the toxic products of combustion generated by the fire itself are far more dangerous than almost any of these gaseous agents used to suppress fires. The ultimate goal is to detect and suppress the fire before products of combustion can reach these dangerous levels.
Thus, not only is the suppression system important,  but the detection system is critical as well. The fire detection system fitted:
* must be properly designed and installed
* must be suited to the environment it is installed in, and, perhaps most important of all
* must be properly maintained to ensure that (in the event of a fire) it will operate quickly and effectively.

Having said this, each agent produced a different level of toxic decomposition products when subjected to the same fire scenario. All the agents tested by the USCG produced some toxic byproduct, the least being produced by Halon 1301, with the most being produced by NAFS III.

Circular 848 also addressed the regulation and control of compartment pressurisation. The discharge of these gaseous agents can cause significant over and under-pressure if the systems are not designed correctly. The Kidde-Fenwal system generated the smallest induced pressures, with CEA-410 generating the largest and most significant (up to –6.2kPa).

Given the pressures generated by FM-200, it is not necessary to consider extra measures to control induced pressures, as they are well within the normal strength of seagoing vessels. However, in the case of CEA-410, it is possible that some extra measures may need to be taken to ensure that no structural damage is done during system discharge.

It was also important that any replacement selected be a long-term, viable solution which was environmentally friendly and easily procured throughout the world.

FM-200 had a zero ozone depletion potential, a short atmospheric lifetime, and is readily available around the world for recharge, when and if necessary. CEA-410, while having a zero ozone depletion potential, had a very long atmospheric lifetime and was therefore classified as an agent of last resort.

NAFS III has a measurable ozone depletion potential and therefore is subjected to phaseout restrictions. It is considered a transitionary agent under the Montreal Protocol and is subject to regulatory controls.

Worldwide approvals
The testing undertaken by the US Coastguard in evaluating all of these replacement Halon agents lead them to grant type approval to the Kidde FM-200 system, the only system using FM-200 to be tested at this time.
The USCG approval illustrates the acceptance that FM-200 has gained worldwide, previously in land-based and now in marine system approvals. The Kidde FM-200 system is currently the only gaseous agent to gain approval under the IMO MSC Circular 848.

Type approvals have been granted by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority, Det Norske Veritas, New Zealand Maritime Authority and the Swedish Maritime Authority. Other approvals currently include applications with the Lloyd's Register and the American Bureau of Shipping. The Kidde FM-200 system is also approved for use in maritime applications by most Australian state marine authorities.

Summary
While all the fire extinguishing agents tested were able to suppress the test fires required in Circular 848, only the Kidde FM-200 system has been subsequently granted type approval by the USCG. Other approvals are pending around the world.

The maritime industry has been faced with a difficult dilemma since the demise of Halon agents. The worldwide supply of Halon has reduced, and an agent for recharge has become more difficult to source. It has been more costly and no complete replacement agent had been found.

This situation is now changing, and the maritime industry finally has a reliable, effective, economic, tested and approved fire suppression system at its disposal in the form of the Kidde FM-200 system.

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Charts still vital for safety at sea       by Margaret Chappell
(Director of Charting Hydrographic Office, RNZN)

"Place your faith in God and the Admiralty chart." Despite electronic charts, satellite navigation and multibeam data collection, the core element to safety of life at sea is still a dependable chart.

Nowadays the Admiralty chart no longer covers New Zealand's coastal and offshore waters. It has been replaced by the New Zealand chart.

The first charting on the New Zealand coast came from the explorer surveyors of 1769, when Captain James Cook discovered New Zealand, to 1840.

In 1848, what is now Windsor Reserve in Devonport was the site of the first small naval base. It was here that the Royal Navy vessel Acheron set up her first trig station to assist her survey parties on the harbour.
This spot, the beginning of the Great Survey of the New Zealand coast from 1848 to 1855, is marked with a plaque. In that time, Acheron and Pandora, which followed her, covered nearly the entire New Zealand coastline, surveying most of the important ports and harbours, and taking countless other tidal, geographic, and astronomic observations.

However admirable their efforts, there still remained no systematic survey of the entire New Zealand coast. Their work had largely been casual surveying, incidental to their primary tasks of establishing mission stations, or searching for Kauri or possible land sites.

Since the Acheron and Pandora surveys, much work had been done in charting enclosed harbours. But from 1901 to 1939 little work was done of the coastline. In September 1949, the River class frigate Lachlan was made available by the Royal Australian Navy to survey the New Zealand coast, and the New Zealand Hydrographic Service was created to convert the large volumes of data collected into the New Zealand chart as we know it today.

Ancient mariner's charts, or portolans, were hand drawn on sheepskin. But since the 16th century, copper plate engraving had been the accepted method of reproducing charts. In the Second World War the Royal Navy's Hydrographic Office developed zinc plates and photo-lithography, but when the Royal New Zealand Navy established its post-war hydrographic office, enamel zinc was replaced by the newly-developed technique of using plastic drawing film.

As noted later, the RNZN Hydrographic Office is no longer the national authority.   However, we have retained our skills and we still produce charts for the New Zealand Defence Force. Whatever the final purpose, the processes are similar.

Integrated process
Let's follow the integrated processes which put together a New Zealand navigation chart.

A chart is a highly complex document, and much detailed thought must go into each one. What is its purpose?  What is the complexity of the undersea topography which must be made clear to the mariner?  At what scale can we best portray the information to the user?  What are the critical features which must be contained within the chart limits?

The first stage is to define the chart's actual purpose, and how to meet these requirements. Charts are designed for many purposes.

Commercial navigation charts cover the main coastal navigation routes, the approaches into main ports, and large-scale charts of the ports themselves. The coastal and approach chart series are produced on standard scales, which best suit their purpose and provide for continuity within that series. Care must be taken to ensure good overlap between adjoining charts to provide for navigation requirements, and also, when determining limits, to ensure adequate sea room is provided and that all significant navigation lights are contained within the chart limits. Then there are coastal and inshore charts covering remaining areas used in commercial fishing and general navigation.

The greatest users of charts in New Zealand are the recreational and pleasure boaties, who place heavy demand on charts of areas such as the Bay of Islands, the Kaipara Harbour, the Hauraki Gulf, Tauranga Harbour, Lake Taupo and the Marlborough Sounds.

In planning these charts, the Hydrographic Office has recognised this group and introduced small craft information in the form of overprinted data and the use of symbols, including marinas, parking, boat ramps, fuel, visitor berths and telephones.

The office has also provided "special purpose" charts for projects such as west coast ironsand exports, tourism and scientific purposes (Sub-Antarctic Islands and Fiordland), and for defence or military purposes. The office can also produce a wide range of products for clients, including digital products.
No two charts have exactly the same requirements, and it often takes all of the 50 years of experience of the office to make the best decisions and arrive at the right result. At all times the safety of the user is paramount, from planning through to the final published chart.

The methodology has been refined, honed and continually advanced over 50 years. During this time the office has concentrated entirely on New Zealand's physical coastline and adjacent ocean areas.
A chart is a "live" document. Its initial publication is just the first stage. From then on it must be maintained in an up to date form. This is achieved by the weekly Notices to Mariners amendments and by a New Edition programme based upon user requirement, specification changes, datum changes, receipt of new data, advancements in technology, and so on. Both of these latter functions are now controlled by LINZ.

Data assembly
The first stage in preparing a new chart or a new edition is to assemble and carefully assess all the relevant data. The principal data is the hydrographic survey data, most of which is currently collected by the RNZN hydrographic surveyors. Other data comes from numerous local, national and international sources. This is a complex and often time consuming stage.

Unfortunately for chart and map makers, the chart or map must be portrayed on a flat piece of paper. In order to do this, an appropriate projection is selected which provides the essential properties required for navigation. (ie meridians and parallels running at right angles to each other, and that a straight line between any two points represents the shortest distance). The best projections are Mercator for small scales, Transverse Mercator for large scales, and Universal Transverse Mercator in Pacific Island areas away from New Zealand.
The key process is the compilation stage, where the hydrographic cartographer scans every piece of hydrographic survey data and makes a critical selection. Quality and dependability is carefully and methodically built in to form a sound, reliable foundation.

This is the essence of the hydrographic chart and is carried out in strict compliance with international specifications provided by the world authority, the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO). While we are using automated systems more often, I'll describe the current process. Whatever means is used, the processes are allied.

The cartographer generates the appropriate projection for the particular chart, which consists of the outer geographic border and the meridians and parallels and is called the graticule, using the SEACARTIS Digital Chart System. The office has operated this system for six years, and more recently has acquired the CARIS GIS (Geographic Information System),  a purpose-developed hydrographic data processing, manipulation and management tool, which can produce digital electronic navigation charts (ENC). CARIS is seen as the natural successor to SEACARTIS. The systems plot out the graticule onto a stable based matt film, which becomes the compilation document.

Photography is used to convert all data for inclusion to the scale of the chart. All selected data, together with navigational aids, bottom descriptions, reefs and shoals and so on is hand drawn onto the compilation document. Accuracy in positioning each item is absolutely paramount The cartographer keeps a detailed audit trail recording the source of every piece of data and how it was used.

It is interesting to note that,  the completed chart typically shows just two to five percent of the hydrographic survey data collected. This process provides the mariner with an accurate picture of the sea floor and related depths, while at the same time eliminating clutter and giving a clean vehicle for the navigational requirements of vessel course and position plotting.

Checking, checking, checking
On completion of the compilation stage, the chart is subjected to a thorough quality control process which has been developed over many years, checking every single piece of data used, and that which was not used and which perhaps should have been!

This task is the responsibility of an experienced divisional cartographer, who checks for correctness, accuracy, quality of selection, compliance with International Specifications, completeness and other details. Over the years there has been criticism of too much time spent on checking. However, office staff believe that where safety of life at sea is concerned, one can never over-check.

The work of the Hydrographic Service is deeply integrated, and this is never more evident than in the quality control process. Senior management personnel assess the chart from their own particular area of expertise. Naval officers check the navigational aspects, the tidal division checks tidal data, the nautical information division checks all navigation aids and ocean boundary delimitation, and so on. The Hydrographer of the RNZN checks the checkers and adds his personal assurance to the final product.The resulting amendments are carried out and the stage is reached where the hand drawn document is ready for conversion to a high quality reproduction standard.

Reproduction
The compilation is then digitised using SEACARTIS (or scanned into the CARIS system for capture). On completion, a proof plot can be generated which is checked against the compilation, and any resulting amendments are actioned. The chart, now held as a digital file, is forwarded to a bureau service in Auckland for generating a high quality plot on stable- based film.This document is known as the final drawing, and represents the completion of the black detail on the chart.

A hydrographic chart comprises four colours - black, magenta (red), blue and green. The use of these colours allows for some discretion. Thus in New Zealand we prefer to use green for our land tint as opposed to many nations which use buff. Keep New Zealand green!

Two tones of blue are used, called shallow water blue, to highlight quickly which areas should be avoided. Lastly the identification label on the reverse side of the chart is prepared by the same method used for the black. Throughout the process, a punch register system is employed to ensure the precise fit of all colours with each other), at all times. All of these processes can also be achieved digitally in the CARIS system.

The printer makes the printing plates and the charts are printed with a senior staff member carrying out last minute quality control. On delivery of the printed stocks, the director of charting carries out a final check, gives a final okay if all is satisfactory, and the charts become available for general use.

An interesting aspect of New Zealand chart production is that each cartographer prepares the chart from projection calculation through the entire compilation and reproduction stages, to the final plate-ready material and printing. Our cartographers are consequently multi-skilled and highly capable, and the New Zealand chart is held in the highest regard.

The future?
Is this to all change? Is the long and hard-earned reputation of the New Zealand chart under threat?

In 1996, as part of ongoing public sector reforms in New Zealand, a funder/provider split was applied to the provision of hydrography. Under the new arrangement, prime responsibility for the purchase of hydrography has passed from defence to LINZ. The new environment will permit contestability in the provision of the services and thus encourage new entrants to the market to compete as providers.

The government is thus clearly able to identify only the services it must purchase to discharge its responsibilities, encourage a more businesslike approach to their provision, permit a high level of financial transparency, and create forecast cost efficiencies through competition.

The new approach has the potential to build on the success of the existing provision. However, careful implementation is critical to the process to ensure its perceived benefits are carefully grafted on to existing, well proven strengths. Failure to achieve this could see the satisfaction of cost accountancy offset by a forlorn realisation of the value of what has been lost.

The vital and highly integrated processes which formed the foundation of the RNZN Hydrographic Service for so long are under threat.

Indeed, the results of this are already becoming apparent. The Hydrographic Office won the majority of contracts for the provision of hydrographic services for the current 1998/99 financial year, but will it continue to survive as a business unit within defence, contesting in a fully commercial marketplace?

What lies ahead for the New Zealand chart as we navigate into the unknown waters beyond the millennium?

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Cores at the heart of climate change      by Dee Pigneguy

An eminent New Zealand scientist, Dr Bruce Hayward, was recently on a 58 day sea voyage on the specially adapted ship Joides Resolution, one of the top drilling ships in the world. It was a privilege for Dee to talk to Dr Hayward, who was investigating the earth's origin and evolution through scientific ocean drilling on New Zealand's southwestern waters.

Bruce, to begin with, could you tell me a little about the Ocean Drilling Programme?
In 1968 the Americans developed the Deep Sea Drilling Project. It was the first scientific effort to sample the global sea floor by deep ocean coring and downhole logging. They wanted to understand the theory of continental drift.
The project quickly became an international effort, with five partner countries - France, West Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the USSR, all of whom were responsible for scientific decision making and financial support.
These countries created the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Sea Sampling. In 1981, 150 of the world's leading scientists met and created a blueprint for the future of ocean drilling. The new programme began in 1985 with a new ship, called the Joides Resolution, and the whole programme is unique for international cooperation for a scientific project.

How did you come to be aboard leg 181 of the Joides Resolution?
This is the first leg, or cruise, completely in New Zealand waters, although two previous legs were in New Zealand for part of the time. New Zealand paid none of the $10 million this leg cost, but leg 181 of the programme would have been unable to take place without special scientific advice and help from marine scientists of the New Zealand Oceanographic Institute (NIWA), and especially the site survey information, which was provided using the institute's research vessel, RV Tangaroa.
When the drilling project comes into the waters of another country, they invite "observers", usually scientists, to come on board. Dr Lionel Carter and myself were the scientists invited.

Tell me about the ship
The Resolution was built in Halifax, Canada, as a conventional oil drilling ship. When the ship is moving, the captain is in charge, and when on site drilling, the drilling master is in charge.There is the drilling team, the shipping crew and the catering side. Sixty people are involved in keeping the Resolution running. Each year she departs on six scientific expeditions of approximately two months' duration. Each expedition has specific scientific goals chosen through a careful review process.

Describe your scientific speciality
I have expertise in the use of microscopic fossils in dating the sedimentary layers on the sea floor. In this part of the world,  the sequence of micro-fossils is slightly different from other parts of the world. In our laboratory aboard we had six people (from Italy, Germany, Norway, Japan and Taiwan), studying the micro-fossils that came up in the core samples from beneath the sea floor.

How do you take core samples from as deep as 632m beneath the sea floor on a ship bobbing around at sea?
The Resolution is 143m long with a beam of 21m. Her derrick rises 61.5m above the waterline. A computer-controlled navigation system regulates 12 powerful thrusters in addition to the main propulsion system. The ship puts her bow into the waves, using the thrusters to hold her in place. With satellite navigation and an acoustic beacon set near the drill site on the sea floor, the system keeps the ship stabilised over the drill site, despite winds and waves.
The drill pipe is attached to a heave compensator, which allows drilling in waves of up to 8m. During leg 181, the system operated successfully in winds of over 50 knots and seas that exceeded 12m in height. We were at sea for 58 days and lost only three days.

What happens once the core is on the deck?
The cry "Core on deck" has the crew, technicians and scientists rushing to the drilling deck as a 9.5m section of ocean sediment or rock is hoisted from the water. The plastic-sheathed cylinder is then carefully carried to a shipboard laboratory. A precise routine ensures that it is marked with its original location, coded to distinguish top from bottom, measured and then cut into smaller sections for study and storage.

What are the specialities of the scientists on board?
On board were 113 people, of whom 50 were scientists and technicians. They included palaeontologists, who study the micro-fossils; sediment geologists, who study the composition of the sediments; geochemists, who study the chemistry of the sediment and the water or gasses within the sediment; palaeomagnetists, who interpret the earth's magnetic field changes; and physical scientists, who study the physical properties of the sediment.    As well, we have geophysicists who are involved with "logging the hole" after drilling.They use remote sensing to measure various properties of the sedimentary layers in the drill hole walls - such as magnetic properties, porosity, conductivity and natural radioactive mineral content. Once the cores are aboard, these scientists examine them in great detail to search for data, based on their specific scientific expertise.

What about the future. Can you return to special drill sites?
The Resolution, which incidentally is named after Captain Cook's vessel of exploration, can put down a re-entry cone with acoustic beacons. Instruments that measure temperature and pressure and take water samples remain in the drill hole for several years. These observatories allow scientists to revisit the site and retrieve data by remotely operated vehicles or submersibles.

What happens to the actual core?
Half of the core is archived with the main storage base in Texas. Scientists and researchers from all over the world can apply for core samples for their research projects, much like the general public use libraries.

I know you've been waiting for a question about the scientific goals of leg 181. What was the main theme?
The oceans of the world are one united, dynamic system. It is like one huge conveyor belt.   All the oceans of the world circulate deep ocean water, which is formed at the surface in the northern and southern polar areas by melting of the ice. This cold water sinks to renew the deep, cold water of the conveyor belt.
This deep, cold water flows past the eastern side of New Zealand. The Deep Western Boundary Current, or DWBC, is the world's largest deep, cold current. It takes about 4000 years to complete its circuit on the conveyor belt and return to its place of formation. During that time it acts like a heat pump, taking cold, polar water and circulating it around the world through the oceans. It helps prevent the tropical oceans from becoming too hot, and it has played a major role in climate change throughout the earth's history.
Hopefully you understand that the ocean is a major influence on the climate of the world. This modern, deep water ocean circulation occurred 32 million years ago, when Australia moved away from Antarctica.

The DWBC is fascinating, but how does it make New Zealand a unique laboratory for deep sea core sampling?
In New Zealand we have a complete natural rock cycle. Mountains are pushed up, volcanoes erupt, and erupting material is carried to the sea. The material is fed into the path of the DWBC, along several deep-sea channels. Under the influence of the current, fine particles are carried northward and deposited on the sea floor. Nowhere else in the world is there such a complete cycle that shows the signature of sedimentary layers.

It's great to know that nature has united dynamic systems. But what did your cores of "mud" prove?
We wanted to investigate the history of the DWBC and its part in the process of moving enormous amounts of sediment, which have formed great piles of mud called sediment drift. There were plenty of clues in the long cylinders. Our deepest drill was 632m in the sea floor.
We could see alternating warm and cold cycles of the earth's climate. These cycles were of 40,000 years duration, going back at least 20 million years. We found these "sediment drifts" contained a unique record of Southern Ocean history over tens of millions of years.

I think you are saying that there have been regular warming and cooling periods all through the earth's history. How does this help us foretell our present "global warming?"
By understanding the natural processes of warming and cooling in climatic change cycles, we now know that we should be going into a cooling phase. Hopefully we will be better able to predict what may happen as the natural global systems are increasingly disturbed by human interference.

Joides Resolution
Specifications
Classification        Dynamic positioned drill ship
Length                143.3m
Beam                  21.3m
Gross tonnage      7539 tonnes
Engines/generators 7x 16 cylinder diesels
Total power        18,000hp
Thrusters            10x retractable, 2x fixed. 750hp each
Maximum water depth reach 8221m
Total drill string     9135m
Drilling cargo        14,159m drill pipe

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Critical shortage of training berths    by Captain Tim Wilson
(Head of Department, New Zealand Maritime School)

Manning problems facing the foreign-going sector of the maritime industry are likely to have a serious impact on the maritime and fishing industry in New Zealand and the New Zealand economy.

The international shipping fleet could face a shortage of as many as 26,000 qualified merchant officers within the next decade, which threatens to destabilise the industry and undermine growth in world trade.
As with planning for the America's Cup, the shortage has crept up on us so slowly that few people appreciate just how big the problem is going to be.

Ships will be unable to trade because of the shortage, or will be allowed to trade with unqualified crew because of economic pressure. The New Zealand economy, which relies on shipping for exports, is not immune, as we are now almost completely reliant on the international shipping market.

Training for foreign-going certificates is expensive, and many operators view it as a cost, not an investment. In the last decade, the number of training berths offered in the international fleet has been severely restricted due to associated costs. In the meantime, the average age of qualified officers in the international fleet has risen dramatically, and many are now contemplating retirement.

The New Zealand situation mirrors other traditional maritime nations; concern with shrinking fleets and surviving week by week has focussed attention away from longer term planning and reports of the impending problems.

Given the time required to train an officer, and that the Hong Kong Polytechnic and other institutions have ceased maritime training to focus on other, more profitable areas, it is questionable whether the impending crisis can be avoided, even if a significant number of new trainees were taken on immediately.

The problem has been aggravated by international regulations and commercial pressures, which have seen many ship owners move progressively to cheaper crews and officers as the margins in shipping become slimmer.
A significant percentage of the world fleet now operates with officers from non-traditional maritime countries, perhaps with a master and chief engineer from a more traditional country. It is natural that most training berths are being offered to nationals from cheaper countries. In addition, most junior officer positions are being filled without necessarily looking at the ability of the person to progress to senior positions.
Many of the companies I visited during my recent Asian trip currently employed junior officers from the Phillipines but were considering a switch to China to reduce costs. Very few training berths were being offered, and most of these were only available to those who were the same nationality as the ratings employed.
Of course, if these developing countries were able to supply officers of the correct quality, the problem would be lessened. The STCW 95 convention was intended to ensure that all officers met basic competence standards regardless of nationality or certifying country.

This convention comes into force on August 1, and already there must be grave concerns about whether the stated goals will be achieved.

Several people responsible for ensuring their country complies with the convention told me they were gravely concerned about the quality of the applications and the patchy understanding of the standards and quality of training and assessment.

As the officer shortage really bites, it is inevitable that increasing pressure will be applied to the International Maritime Organisation to lower the standards and allow greater variation. This will be a test of the IMO's resolve to set and maintain the highest of standards.

In some countries, certificates can be purchased and in others, a New Zealand 200 tonne coastal certificate can be upgraded to a foreign-going unlimited tonnage certificate without assessment. In other countries, people who are a major threat to their fellow crew, other seafarers and the environment can become certificated. These people are already on ships sailing in New Zealand waters. If the IMO is unable to ensure member states correctly adopt and apply the STCW standards, the officer shortage will inevitably cause this situation to worsen.

One must also ask where our pilots, operations managers, superintendents, examiners, Maritime Safety Authority staff, surveyors and tutors will come from in the future. It has been argued that this will not really be a problem, as we can simply obtain the required skills through immigration.

It seems to me that any industry relying on immigration to fill key positions has no intention of controlling its own future, and is therefore bound to fail. The real problem is that those countries which are going to be source of maritime skills are all facing similar problems, and attracting these people will almost certainly be much more difficult than many think.

At the same time, the shortage in other countries may mean that many New Zealanders with the required skills are emigrating or working offshore. Further, senior officers are already reluctant to come ashore because of the difference between seagoing and shore side pay. The situation will be significantly worse when pay rates at sea have increased by 50 to 100 percent, and leave periods increased in an effort to retain personnel.
On the bright side, those of us still in the first half of our working lives and with foreign going certificates of competency should have no problems finding highly paid jobs.

Supply and demand theory suggests that any reduction in the supply of available ships due to an inability to man them correctly will cause an increase in freight rates. This and the inevitable increase in officer pay and conditions will push shipping costs higher. New Zealand's isolation means that we will be particularly affected, and our international competitiveness downgraded.

What is being done about the problem? Two New Zealand operators, Tranz Rail and Strait Shipping, must be congratulated for offering positions to new trainees. P & O Nedlloyd has also accepted a small number of new cadets from New Zealand. The Danish shipping giant, Maersk Line, will also offer New Zealanders the opportunity to train this year (see below.) These companies have recognised the problem and are doing something about it.

Those most likely to be affected are the remaining operators, port companies, terminals, agencies and the Maritime Safety Authority. Little has been heard from them. Presumably they simply intend to poach officers from the more responsible companies by offering better wages and conditions.

The New Zealand Maritime School has decided to take a proactive role in an attempt to ensure that there is a New Zealand involvement in our own shipping and trading industry.

This year a new cadet training programme beginning at the school aims to partially assist in overcoming the local problem. Students will complete two years at the school completing the academic requirements for their Second Mates certificate before going to sea to complete the sea time requirements. They will then return for their oral examination. The intake for this programme will be very small due to the limited number of training berths available to complete the sea time.

The school has visited many operators in Asia and secured a limited number of berths. This work is continuing, but many other countries are asking for the same thing, and are able to spend significantly more money in getting their message across.

In our favour, we have a large pool of available students with a desire to go to sea, and we can offer training and assessment of the highest quality at very little cost to the ship operator. New Zealand officers already working in the international industry have carved out an excellent reputation for their skills, knowledge and attitudes, and it is now time to build on this.

Maersk Line
The Danish shipping giant Maersk Line has announced that it will employ and train New Zealand deck cadets on their vessels and integrate these trainees into their Danish manning pool

The cadets will be selected from the Diploma in Nautical Science course which begins at the New Zealand Maritime School this year. This development is a major breakthrough for maritime training in New Zealand.
Maersk Line made this step after being impressed by the new programme put together by the school, and after investigating the number of young New Zealanders keen on a career at sea

"This endorsement once again reinforces the international reputation of the foreign going training and assessment offered by New Zealand's largest maritime school," says the school's Head of Department, Captain Tim Wilson.

Maersk's initial commitment is to offer sponsorship to at least six to eight students. They will spend some time at Maersk's own training school in Denmark and on a variety of different vessel types. The three-year training period will lead to a Manukau Institute of Technology Diploma and a Second Mates Certificate which complies with the highest international standards.

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The Cup runneth over   by Steve Punter

I was watching a documentary on the Discovery channel the other day about the African great plains, the Serengeti I think, no matter, which focussed on the migration of the gnu and the zebra, with countless thousands of them moving like a black shadow over the earth. Apparently they do this twice a year (it's a return ticket) and have done for millions of years.

The documentary focussed on the activities of a group of predators which follow the migration, and other predators who lie in wait. It seems gnus and zebras, these Great Plains Travelers, have no option but to migrate using the route they do. It's built into their genes. Therefore, the predators have a guaranteed food supply twice a year, and they make the most of it.

Lions, cheetahs, hyenas, vultures - you name it, the feast is on, it's make hay while the sun shines. These predators only exist because the food supply is there. At other times of the year they may starve. So it is built into their genes too, to stuff themselves as full as their stomachs can cope with, trying to pack on the fat for the lean times. They cannot  bank the stuff or chuck it in the freezer. From starvation to gluttony and  back to starvation, is nature's way.

Enter Mankind, Homo erectus. One hundred thousand years ago, in order for man to survive he would have lived off the migrating herds too, in much the same way. However, we've come a long way since then. Er, I think.
There will shortly arrive in this fair country another kind of Great Plains Traveller. Some of them are already here, and the predators are ready. Once again, the travellers have no option but to come here. If you want to participate in the America's Cup, this is where it's at. The traveller can only choose whether or not to travel. The destination is set.

Feeding off this migration are three types of predator:  those who travel with them, feeding off them en route; those who are already here in the disguise of existing service providers; and those the situation will create - the opportunists.

I'd like to leave the migration analogy behind and lead out with a question. What happens on the Serengeti is a function of nature carried out by animals. If a little cruel, we accept it as nature's Way. My question is, can we apply the same analogy to the various suppliers of products and services aimed at those associated with the America's Cup? I think we have to.

It appears to be happening. If so, is it wrong? It would appear that for the period leading up to (and during) the cup, airfares from London (and presumably every other destination) will rise by about 300 percent. A hotel bed, which currently goes for $150 per night, will cost $900. Charter operators who used to be able to afford berthage now no longer can. And it will get worse.

I am reminded of the western tourist, lost in the desert, staggering from dune to dune. He meets an Arab riding a camel.
"Water", he cried.
"Sorry", says the Arab. "No water. I have some lovely ties, though. Would you like to buy a tie for only $1?"
"No!" says the tourist, and staggers on. Three times he is denied water and offered a tie for a dollar. Each time he refuses. Eventually, nearing death, he climbs a high dune, and sees before him an oasis, surrounded by a security fence. He asks the guard to let him in.
"Sorry", says the guard. "No admittance without a tie. I have some here at the measly price of $1000, and Amex will do nicely, thank you."

The price of something is determined not by its cost of manufacture plus its cost of sale or supply, and a margin on top, or by what is fair. The price is determined by what the market will or will not pay, as Housing New Zealand has learnt, with the high number of houses vacant, yet there are a high number of homeless families. Housing New Zealand thought they had a captive market and they do, but in many cases the target market simply can't raise the readies, and the social conscience issues seem to be being ignored.

The predators in the cup market also know that they have a captive market, and there appear to be no social conscience issues. The cup participant or attendee must come here. Therefore the question is: how desperate are they, and how deep are their pockets?

Perth showed us how opportunists will create a business driven purely by Cup Fever, which survives during the event but then can't pay the creditors: from boom to bust in 12 months. It will happen here, because the driving forces are constant.

If a restaurant owner, seeing a sudden influx of wealthy tourists, doubles his menu prices - is that wrong? If you throw money at me, should I not take it? The fact that we locals will not patronise his restaurant because we can't afford it will not have an effect during the cup.So, after the cup, market forces will bring the prices down again.

If I own a property overlooking the cup race area, and sell it for three times its normal market price to a Texan who lights his cigar with $100 notes, am I wrong to do this? He will sell it after the cup at a huge loss, but to him that loss is just another cost of being here. It's factored in. Money talks, and if you'll pardon me for being cynical, the human is basically a greedy sort of beast.

But there is a caveat here. The business and community leaders, and even the proprietors of various waterfront service and supply industries, should remember that the local operators who need your services are, if you like, your seed crop. In the headlong rush to cream off the windfall, you may be damaging the local operators to the point that when the party is over, the big money has all gone home and the hangover is thudding away, the core businesses that kept the waterfront alive in normal times may simply have died away.

What will you do then? Has anyone given any thought to the long-term damage to our tourism industry, as people learn they can't afford to fly here, and even if they can, they can't afford to stay? I guess the gamble is whether these tourists will try again later. People have long memories about some things.

Interestingly, these days you hear much use of the word sustainable, as in "sustainable fishing quotas" -  enough to earn money without damaging the stock to the point where it cannot recover. and "sustainable logging" - taking enough, without wiping out the forests.

It would appear that this management or husbandry if you like, is an inconvenient concept when considering the local marine industry in the context of the America's Cup. For some, thinking long term is obviously not in vogue. One thing's for sure. After it's all over, there will be plenty of cheap boats around. The banks will feel it a bit as they foreclose on mortgages and bankrupt the unlucky.

But then they'll be enjoy the deposits from those doing the creaming, so I guess it will balance out for them.

Banks don't usually lose, do they? Maybe that's when I'll buy my boat from a mortgagee sale, or a desperate vendor. Does that make me a predator or an opportunist? Should I have a social conscience in this?

As a final point, in a small village there was a butcher. He was the only butcher for 30 miles. Realising the power he had, he started raising his retail prices and dropping the price paid to the farmer. People complained, but they had no choice, until a group of farmers started talking together, and realised that they too had power.
They quietly formed a cooperative, pooled enough stock to supply the village, and contracted in a butcher two days per week. By the time the butcher realised his mistake, it was too late. AFFCO was born, and he was out of business.
Carpe diem

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Women in Our Industry by Dee Pigneguy
Tiny tot turns to sea for adventure

When Ruth Dally experienced her first storm at sea off the East Coast, her diary recorded:
"The Sark (the Cutty Sark, an 18.2m (60ft) ketch built in Lyttelton and launched in 1946) was being thrown around like a piece of paper. I was thrown out of my bunk right across the cabin. By midnight everyone was seasick except the skipper, and bodies were in all states. Things were being thrown everywhere and the sea was pounding. Is this really what I want to do with my life?"

It must have been.

Ruth Dally was born in Christchurch, spent most of her childhood around Lyttelton Harbour.  Holidays were spent at Pile Bay just around from Diamond Harbour.

From the age of four, Ruth Dally was rowing her family's clinker-built dinghy around the bay with her sister and two cousins, often rowing well out into the harbour to fish - tiny tots heading out to sea on an adventure!
At the age of 17 she joined the Royal New Zealand Navy as a sick berth attendant. She   was determined to go to sea, but at that time Wrens were not permitted to be part of the ship's company. A highlight of her Navy time was a dive off the American submarine Archerfish, to become an honorary submariner.

She left New Zealand in 1969 in the the Cutty Sark, and sailed around many of the New Guinea Islands. She also gained extensive experience aboard the American boat Crusader, which was later sunk in the Bay of Bengal.

While sailing the tiny 9.1m sloop Islander around the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean she was boarded by pirates in the Flores Sea. They stripped the yacht of nearly everything.

Ruth took a photograph of the pirates posing in their vessel, which had a gun mounted on the foredeck. This was later presented to the police in Djakarta, but they could do nothing.

Being a woman on a small ship had many advantages, but it was the disadvantages that encouraged Ruth to buy her own 9.1m yacht Magic in Sydney. Magic had flush decks, no headroom, let alone a head, and a small 8hp engine.

As she sailed single-handed most of the time, her motto was "Keep things simple".  She sailed Magic up through the Whitsundays to Cooktown. Her best passage was 150 miles in 22 hours. At times the log touched 10 knots, and she was torn between feelings of utter terror and exhilaration. But being alone, the whole experience taught her much.

When she wanted crew to help, it was on her conditions - she could run her own boat as she wanted. Three years later, Magic was sold in Sydney. After 18 years away, Ruth returned to New Zealand.

She teamed up with her partner, Lance Shaw, who at that time was skipper of the Department of Conservation's vessel, the Renown. Ruth passed her Commercial Launch Master ticket in Dunedin, and was employed as the first female skipper with Fiordland Travel, where she worked on Lake Manapouri and Lake Te Anau.

But adventure was just around the corner. Greenpeace called Lance, to say they wanted experienced crew and divers for the Driftnet Campaign. Within three days Ruth and Lance had joined the Evohe in Wellington. Backed by Earth Trust from Hawaii, they had three weeks in the Tasman Ocean monitoring the Japanese drift net fleet.

The next adventure involved helping to bring a 25m catamaran from Sydney to Bluff. This vessel (now renamed Commander Peak) had been bought by Fiordland Travel for day excursions on Doubtful Sound. Having promised herself never to do an ocean passage in a multihull, Ruth stood night watches with a lifejacket on, seriously praying for dawn to appear. On tying up at Bluff she kissed the wharf.

Ruth and Lance, who are both active conservationists, decided in 1993 to lease the Evohe and set up their own business on the Fiordland coast. Their goals were to promote eco-tourism, fund research through tourism, and continue to lobby for marine reserves within the fiords.

After two years they approached their bank manager, and managed to get backing to buy an Australian 20m buckeye ketch, which they named Breaksea Girl.

Fiordland Ecology Holidays, as the company is known, is now recognised as being one of the top eco-tourism businesses in New Zealand. Ruth believes they are one of the few charter boat operators funding research through tourism. They are the only vessel in the Southern Waters to have a "no fishing" policy.
Breaksea Girl, with Lance as skipper, works the Fiordland coast, Stewart island and the Subantarctic Islands. Ruth runs the business and says she is proud that they have the busiest small vessel on the coast.
Has she hung up her skipper's hat? Not yet. "There are still lots of miles to sail, and I am lost without a boat in my life."

Her great grandfather, "Papa Varney", a ship's carpenter, who sailed from London and established a ship's chandlery in London St. Lyttelton, would be proud of this experienced blue water mariner.

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